Real Python

The Real Python Podcast – Episode #290: Advice on Managing Projects & Making Python Classes Friendly

2026-04-10T12:00:00+00:00

What goes into managing a major project? What techniques can you employ for a project that's in crisis? Christopher Trudeau is back on the show this week with another batch of PyCoder's Weekly articles and projects.

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Quiz: Exploring Protocols in Python

2026-04-10T12:00:00+00:00

In this quiz, you’ll test your understanding of Exploring Protocols in Python.

The questions review Python protocols, how they define required methods and attributes, and how static type checkers use them. You’ll also explore structural subtyping, generic protocols, and subprotocols.

This quiz helps you confirm the concepts covered in the course and shows you where to focus further study. If you want to review the material, the course covers these topics in depth at the link above.

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Quiz: Reading Input and Writing Output in Python

2026-04-09T12:00:00+00:00

In this quiz, you’ll test your understanding of Reading Input and Writing Output in Python.

By working through this quiz, you’ll revisit taking keyboard input with input(), showing results with print(), formatting output, and handling basic input types.

This quiz helps you practice building simple interactive scripts and reinforces best practices for clear console input and output.

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Dictionaries in Python

2026-04-08T14:00:00+00:00

Python dictionaries are a powerful built-in data type that allows you to store key-value pairs for efficient data retrieval and manipulation. Learning about them is essential for developers who want to process data efficiently. In this tutorial, you’ll explore how to create dictionaries using literals and the dict() constructor, as well as how to use Python’s operators and built-in functions to manipulate them.

By learning about Python dictionaries, you’ll be able to access values through key lookups and modify dictionary content using various methods. This knowledge will help you in data processing, configuration management, and dealing with JSON and CSV data.

By the end of this tutorial, you’ll understand that:

A dictionary in Python is a mutable collection of key-value pairs that allows for efficient data retrieval using unique keys.
Both dict() and {} can create dictionaries in Python. Use {} for concise syntax and dict() for dynamic creation from iterable objects.
dict() is a class used to create dictionaries. However, it’s commonly called a built-in function in Python.
.__dict__ is a special attribute in Python that holds an object’s writable attributes in a dictionary.
Python dict is implemented as a hashmap, which allows for fast key lookups.

To get the most out of this tutorial, you should be familiar with basic Python syntax and concepts such as variables, loops, and built-in functions. Some experience with basic Python data types will also be helpful.

Get Your Code: Click here to download the free sample code that you’ll use to learn about dictionaries in Python.

Take the Quiz: Test your knowledge with our interactive “Dictionaries in Python” quiz. You’ll receive a score upon completion to help you track your learning progress:

Interactive Quiz

Dictionaries in Python

Test your knowledge of Python's dict data type: how to create, access, and modify key-value pairs using built-in methods and operators.

Getting Started With Python Dictionaries

Dictionaries are one of Python’s most important and useful built-in data types. They provide a mutable collection of key-value pairs that lets you efficiently access and mutate values through their corresponding keys:

>>> config = {
...     "color": "green",
...     "width": 42,
...     "height": 100,
...     "font": "Courier",
... }

>>> # Access a value through its key
>>> config["color"]
'green'

>>> # Update a value
>>> config["font"] = "Helvetica"
>>> config
{
    'color': 'green',
    'width': 42,
    'height': 100,
    'font': 'Helvetica'
}

A Python dictionary consists of a collection of key-value pairs, where each key corresponds to its associated value. In this example, "color" is a key, and "green" is the associated value.

Dictionaries are a fundamental part of Python. You’ll find them behind core concepts like scopes and namespaces as seen with the built-in functions globals() and locals():

>>> globals()
{
    '__name__': '__main__',
    '__doc__': None,
    '__package__': None,
    ...
}

The globals() function returns a dictionary containing key-value pairs that map names to objects that live in your current global scope.

Python also uses dictionaries to support the internal implementation of classes. Consider the following demo class:

>>> class Number:
...     def __init__(self, value):
...         self.value = value
...

>>> Number(42).__dict__
{'value': 42}

The .__dict__ special attribute is a dictionary that maps attribute names to their corresponding values in Python classes and objects. This implementation makes attribute and method lookup fast and efficient in object-oriented code.

You can use dictionaries to approach many programming tasks in your Python code. They come in handy when processing CSV and JSON files, working with databases, loading configuration files, and more.

Python’s dictionaries have the following characteristics:

Mutable: The dictionary values can be updated in place.
Dynamic: Dictionaries can grow and shrink as needed.
Efficient: They’re implemented as hash tables, which allows for fast key lookup.
Ordered: Starting with Python 3.7, dictionaries keep their items in the same order they were inserted.

The keys of a dictionary have a couple of restrictions. They need to be:

Hashable: This means that you can’t use unhashable objects like lists as dictionary keys.
Unique: This means that your dictionaries won’t have duplicate keys.

In contrast, the values in a dictionary aren’t restricted. They can be of any Python type, including other dictionaries, which makes it possible to have nested dictionaries.

Dictionaries are collections of pairs. So, you can’t insert a key without its corresponding value or vice versa. Since they come as a pair, you always have to insert a key with its corresponding value.

Note: In some situations, you may want to add keys to a dictionary without deciding what the associated value should be. In those cases, you can use the .setdefault() method to create keys with a default or placeholder value.

Read the full article at https://realpython.com/python-dicts/ »

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Quiz: Implementing the Factory Method Pattern in Python

2026-04-08T12:00:00+00:00

In this quiz, you’ll test your understanding of Factory Method Pattern.

This quiz guides you through the Factory Method pattern: how it separates object creation from use, the roles of clients and products, when to apply it, and how to implement flexible, maintainable Python classes.

Test your ability to spot opportunities for the pattern and build reusable, decoupled object creation solutions.

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Using Loguru to Simplify Python Logging

2026-04-07T14:00:00+00:00

Logging is a vital programming practice that helps you track, understand, and debug your application’s behavior. Loguru is a Python library that provides simpler, more intuitive logging compared to Python’s built-in logging module.

Good logging gives you insights into your program’s execution, helps you diagnose issues, and provides valuable information about your application’s health in production. Without proper logging, you risk missing critical errors, spending countless hours debugging blind spots, and potentially undermining your project’s overall stability.

By the end of this video course, you’ll understand that:

Logging in Python can be simple and intuitive with the right tools.
Using Loguru lets you start logging immediately without complex configuration.
You can customize log formats and send logs to multiple destinations like files, the standard error stream, or external services.
Loguru provides powerful debugging capabilities that make troubleshooting easier.
Loguru supports structured logging with JSON formatting for modern applications.

After watching this course, you’ll be able to quickly implement better logging in your Python applications. You’ll spend less time wrestling with logging configuration and more time using logs effectively to debug issues. This will help you build production-ready applications that are easier to troubleshoot when problems occur.

To get the most from this course, you should be familiar with Python concepts like functions, decorators, and context managers. You might also find it helpful to have some experience with Python’s built-in logging module, though this isn’t required.

Don’t worry if you’re new to logging in Python. This course will guide you through everything you need to know to get started with Loguru and implement effective logging in your applications.

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Quiz: Building a Python GUI Application With Tkinter

2026-04-07T12:00:00+00:00

In this quiz, you’ll test your understanding of Building a Python GUI Application With Tkinter.

Test your Tkinter knowledge by identifying core widgets, managing layouts, handling text with Entry and Text widgets, and connecting buttons to Python functions.

This quiz also covers event loops, widget sizing, and file dialogs, helping you solidify the essentials for building interactive, cross-platform Python GUI apps.

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Quiz: Using Loguru to Simplify Python Logging

2026-04-07T12:00:00+00:00

In this quiz, you’ll test your understanding of Using Loguru to Simplify Python Logging.

By working through this quiz, you’ll revisit key concepts like the pre-configured logger, log levels, format placeholders, adding context with .bind() and .contextualize(), and saving logs to files.

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D-Strings Could End Your textwrap.dedent() Days and Other Python News for April 2026

2026-04-06T14:00:00+00:00

If you’ve ever wrapped a multiline string in textwrap.dedent() and wondered why Python can’t just handle that for you, then your PEP has arrived. PEP 822 proposes d-strings, a new d"""...""" prefix that automatically strips leading indentation. It’s one of those small quality-of-life ideas that make you wonder why it didn’t exist already. The PEP is currently a draft proposal.

March also delivered Python 3.15.0 alpha 7 with lazy imports you can finally test and security patches across three older branches. On the ecosystem side, GPT-5.4 landed with a tool search feature that changes agentic workflows. Meanwhile, the Python Insider blog migration moved 307 posts to a new home without breaking a single URL. It’s time to get into the biggest Python news from the past month.

Join Now: Click here to join the Real Python Newsletter and you’ll never miss another Python tutorial, course, or news update.

Python Releases and PEP Highlights

March brought the penultimate alpha of Python 3.15 with a long-awaited feature that finally lets Python developers defer imports cleanly. On top of that, security patches landed for three older branches, and a fresh PEP proposal showed up that could clean up your multiline strings for good.

Python 3.15.0 Alpha 7: Lazy Imports Land

Python 3.15.0a7 dropped on March 10, the second-to-last alpha before the beta freeze on May 5. The headline feature you can finally test is PEP 810, explicit lazy imports. The Steering Council accepted PEP 810 back in November, but this is the first alpha where the implementation is available to try.

The idea is straightforward: prefix any import statement with lazy, and the module won’t actually load until you first access an attribute on it:

lazy import json
lazy from datetime import timedelta

# The json module isn't loaded yet, so no startup cost

# Later, when you actually use it:
data = json.loads(payload)  # Now it loads

The PEP authors note that 17 percent of standard library imports are already placed inside functions to defer loading. Tools like Django’s management commands, Click-based CLIs, and codebases heavy on type checking often spend hundreds of milliseconds on imports they might never use. Lazy imports make that optimization explicit and clean, without scattering imports deep inside function bodies.

Note: Alpha 7 also continues to ship the JIT compiler improvements from earlier alphas, with 3–4 percent geometric mean gains on x86-64 Linux and 7–8 percent on AArch64 macOS. Alpha 8 is scheduled for April 7, with the beta phase starting May 5.

Security Releases: Python 3.12.13, 3.11.15, and 3.10.20

On March 3, Thomas Wouters released security-only patches across three older Python branches. The updates fix several CVEs, including two XML parsing vulnerabilities (CVE-2026-24515 and CVE-2026-25210), patched by upgrading the bundled libexpat to 2.7.4. Additional fixes cover an XML memory amplification bug and the rejection of control characters in HTTP headers and URL parsing.

If you’re still running Python 3.12 or older in production, applying these patches is highly recommended. Python 3.12 is now in security-fixes-only mode, so no binary installers are provided. You’ll need to build from source.

PEP 822: Dedented Multiline Strings (D-Strings)

PEP 822, authored by Inada Naoki, proposes a new d"""...""" string prefix that automatically strips leading indentation from multiline strings, using the same algorithm as textwrap.dedent().

Anyone who’s written a multiline SQL query or help text inside a function and battled with indentation knows the pain:

import textwrap

# Before: awkward indentation or textwrap.dedent() wrapper
def get_query():
    return textwrap.dedent("""\
        SELECT name, email
        FROM users
        WHERE active = true
    """)

# With d-strings: clean and readable
def get_query():
    return d"""
        SELECT name, email
        FROM users
        WHERE active = true
    """

The d prefix combines with f, r, b, and even the upcoming t (template strings) prefixes. PEP 822 was submitted to the Steering Council on March 9 and targets Python 3.15, though a decision hasn’t landed yet. If you’ve ever wished Python strings would just handle indentation for you, this one’s worth keeping an eye on.

Other PEPs in Progress

Read the full article at https://realpython.com/python-news-april-2026/ »

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Quiz: For Loops in Python (Definite Iteration)

2026-04-06T12:00:00+00:00

Test your understanding of For Loops in Python (Definite Iteration).

You’ll revisit Python loops, iterables, and how iterators behave. You’ll also explore set iteration order and the effects of the break and continue statements.

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Quiz: How to Add Features to a Python Project With Codex CLI

2026-04-03T12:00:00+00:00

In this quiz, you’ll test your understanding of How to Add Features to a Python Project With Codex CLI.

By working through this quiz, you’ll revisit how to install, configure, and use Codex CLI to implement and refine features in a Python project using natural language prompts.

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Quiz: Class Concepts: Object-Oriented Programming in Python

2026-04-03T12:00:00+00:00

In this quiz, you’ll test your understanding of Class Concepts: Object-Oriented Programming in Python.

By working through this quiz, you’ll revisit how to define classes, use instance and class attributes, write different types of methods, and apply the descriptor protocol through properties.

You can also deepen your knowledge with the tutorial Python Classes: The Power of Object-Oriented Programming.

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Quiz: Python's Counter: The Pythonic Way to Count Objects

2026-04-02T12:00:00+00:00

In this quiz, you’ll test your understanding of Python’s Counter: The Pythonic Way to Count Objects.

By working through this quiz, you’ll revisit how to create Counter objects, update counts, find most common elements, and use counters as multisets with arithmetic operations.

This quiz covers practical Counter tasks such as constructing counters from different data types, accessing counts, and working with multiset operations. If you want a deeper walkthrough, review the tutorial linked above.

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Python Classes: The Power of Object-Oriented Programming

2026-04-01T14:00:00+00:00

Python classes are blueprints for creating objects that bundle data and behavior together. Using the class keyword, you define attributes to store state and methods to implement behavior, then create as many instances as you need. Classes are the foundation of object-oriented programming (OOP) in Python and help you write organized, reusable, and maintainable code.

By the end of this tutorial, you’ll understand that:

A Python class is a reusable blueprint that defines object attributes and methods.
Instance attributes hold data unique to each object, while class attributes are shared across all instances.
Python classes support single and multiple inheritance, enabling code reuse through class hierarchies.
Abstract base classes (ABCs) define formal interfaces that subclasses must implement.
Classes enable polymorphism, allowing you to use different object types interchangeably through shared interfaces.

To get the most out of this tutorial, you should be familiar with Python variables, data types, and functions. Some experience with object-oriented programming (OOP) is a plus, but you’ll cover all the key concepts you need here.

Get Your Code: Click here to download your free sample code that shows you how to build powerful object blueprints with classes in Python.

Take the Quiz: Test your knowledge with our interactive “Python Classes - The Power of Object-Oriented Programming” quiz. You’ll receive a score upon completion to help you track your learning progress:

Interactive Quiz

Python Classes - The Power of Object-Oriented Programming

In this quiz, you'll test your understanding of Python classes, including attributes, methods, inheritance, and object-oriented programming concepts.

Getting Started With Python Classes

Python is a multiparadigm programming language that supports object-oriented programming (OOP) through classes that you can define with the class keyword. You can think of a class as a piece of code that specifies the data and behavior that represent and model a particular type of object.

What is a class in Python? A common analogy is that a class is like the blueprint for a house. You can use the blueprint to create several houses and even a complete neighborhood. Each concrete house is an object or instance that’s derived from the blueprint.

Each instance can have its own properties, such as color, owner, and interior design. These properties carry what’s commonly known as the object’s state. Instances can also have different behaviors, such as locking the doors and windows, opening the garage door, turning the lights on and off, watering the garden, and more.

In OOP, you commonly use the term attributes to refer to the properties or data associated with a specific object of a given class. In Python, attributes are variables defined inside a class with the purpose of storing all the required data for the class to work.

Similarly, you’ll use the term methods to refer to the different behaviors that objects will show. Methods are functions that you define within a class. These functions typically operate on or with the attributes of the underlying instance or class. Attributes and methods are collectively referred to as members of a class or object.

You can write classes to model the real world. These classes will help you better organize your code and solve complex programming problems.

For example, you can use classes to create objects that emulate people, animals, vehicles, books, buildings, cars, or other objects. You can also model virtual objects, such as a web server, directory tree, chatbot, file manager, and more.

Finally, you can use classes to build class hierarchies. This way, you’ll promote code reuse and remove repetition throughout your codebase.

In this tutorial, you’ll learn a lot about classes and all the cool things that you can do with them. To kick things off, you’ll start by defining your first class in Python. Then you’ll dive into other topics related to instances, attributes, and methods.

Defining a Class in Python

To define a class, you need to use the class keyword followed by the class name and a colon, just like you’d do for other compound statements in Python. Then you must define the class body, which will start at the next indentation level:

class ClassName:
    <body>

In a class’s body, you can define attributes and methods as needed. As you already learned, attributes are variables that hold the class data, while methods are functions that provide behavior and typically act on the class data.

Note: In Python, the body of a given class works as a namespace where attributes and methods live. You can only access those attributes and methods through the class or its objects.

As an example of how to define attributes and methods, say that you need a Circle class to model different circles in a drawing application. Initially, your class will have a single attribute to hold the radius. It’ll also have a method to calculate the circle’s area:

import math

class Circle:
    def __init__(self, radius):
        self.radius = radius

    def calculate_area(self):
        return math.pi * self.radius ** 2

In this code snippet, you define Circle using the class keyword. Inside the class, you write two methods. The .__init__() method has a special meaning in Python classes. This method is known as the object initializer because it defines and sets the initial values for the object’s attributes. You’ll learn more about this method in the Instance Attributes section.

The second method of Circle is conveniently named .calculate_area() and will compute the area of a specific circle by using its radius. In this example, you’ve used the math module to access the pi constant as it’s defined in that module.

Read the full article at https://realpython.com/python-classes/ »

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Quiz: Exploring Keywords in Python

2026-04-01T12:00:00+00:00

In this quiz, you’ll test your understanding of Exploring Keywords in Python.

By working through this quiz, you’ll revisit how to identify Python keywords, understand the difference between regular and soft keywords, categorize keywords by purpose, and avoid common pitfalls with deprecated keywords.

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Adding Python to PATH

2026-03-31T14:00:00+00:00

You may need to add Python to PATH if you’ve installed Python, but typing python on the command line doesn’t seem to work. You might see a message saying that python isn’t recognized, or you might end up running the wrong version of Python.

A common fix for these problems is adding Python to the PATH environment variable. In this video course, you’ll learn how to add Python to PATH. You’ll also learn what PATH is and why it’s essential for tools like the command line to be able to find your Python installation.

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How to Use Ollama to Run Large Language Models Locally

2026-03-30T14:00:00+00:00

Running Ollama in your terminal allows you to start chatting with a local large language model (LLM) quickly. You won’t need API keys, cloud services, or ongoing costs. Ollama is a free, open-source tool that lets you download and run models directly on your machine. By following this guide, you’ll install Ollama, chat with local models from your terminal, and use them to power agentic coding tools:

Example of Using Ollama to Run an LLM Locally

Large language models traditionally require expensive API subscriptions and a constant internet connection. Ollama eliminates both requirements by running models directly on your hardware. Because everything runs locally, your prompts stay on your machine, and no per-token fees apply.

Get Your Cheat Sheet: Click here to download your free Ollama cheat sheet and keep the essential steps and commands for running LLMs locally at your fingertips.

Take the Quiz: Test your knowledge with our interactive “How to Use Ollama to Run Large Language Models Locally” quiz. You’ll receive a score upon completion to help you track your learning progress:

Interactive Quiz

How to Use Ollama to Run Large Language Models Locally

Test your knowledge of running LLMs locally with Ollama. Install it, pull models, chat, and connect coding tools from your terminal.

Prerequisites

To follow this guide, you’ll need the following software and hardware:

macOS 14 Sonoma or newer, Windows 10 or newer, or a recent Linux distribution
At least 8 GB of RAM, or 16 GB or more for larger models
5–16 GB of free disk space to store models
Basic skills with the command line or terminal, including opening a terminal and running commands

No Python installation is required for this guide, and no prior experience with LLMs or AI is needed. If you want to integrate Ollama with Python after finishing here, check out How to Integrate Local LLMs With Ollama and Python.

Step 1: Install Ollama and Pull Your First Model

To quickly install Ollama on your operating system, run the following command based on your platform:

PS> irm https://ollama.com/install.ps1 | iex

$ curl -fsSL https://ollama.com/install.sh | sh

Once this command finishes, Ollama will be installed on your system.

Note: In some Linux distributions, you may need to install curl to download the installer and the zstd library for extraction. On Debian/Ubuntu, you can install them with the following command:

$ sudo apt update && sudo apt install curl zstd

Alternatively, you can download a dedicated installer for Windows and macOS. Visit Ollama’s download page to get the installer for those operating systems.

Note: Ollama has a GUI application for macOS and Windows users. This quick guide focuses solely on the command-line (CLI) tool. See Ollama’s app announcement if you want to explore that option.

After installation, you can verify that the CLI is available with the following command:

$ ollama -v
ollama version is 0.17.7

The Ollama service should be running in the background. Normally, you don’t need to start it manually. It runs on port 11434 by default. If you get a warning after running the command above, then you may need to run the background server manually:

$ ollama serve

Read the full article at https://realpython.com/ollama/ »

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The Real Python Podcast – Episode #289: Limitations in Human and Automated Code Review

2026-03-27T12:00:00+00:00

With the mountains of Python code that it's possible to generate now, how's your code review going? What are the limitations of human review, and where does machine review excel? Christopher Trudeau is back on the show this week with another batch of PyCoder's Weekly articles and projects.

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How to Use Git: A Beginner's Guide

2026-03-25T14:00:00+00:00

This tutorial shows you how to use Git to track changes in a project using just a few core commands and save clean snapshots of your work. If you’ve ever changed a file, broken something, and wished you could undo it, version control makes that possible. Git keeps a running history of your files so you can see what changed and when.

In this guide, you’ll set up Git locally and use the core workflow from the terminal to track and record changes in a Python project. By the end, you’ll have a working Git repository with a recorded commit history you can inspect and manage:

In the next sections, you’ll create your own repository and begin building that history from scratch. Before you begin, you can download a Git cheat sheet to keep the core commands handy:

Get Your Cheat Sheet: Click here to download your free Git cheat sheet and keep the core Git workflow, essential commands, and commit tips at your fingertips.

Take the Quiz: Test your knowledge with our interactive “How to Use Git: A Beginner's Guide” quiz. You’ll receive a score upon completion to help you track your learning progress:

Interactive Quiz

How to Use Git: A Beginner's Guide

Test your knowledge of Git basics: initializing repos, staging files, committing snapshots, and managing your project history.

How to Use Git: Prerequisites

Before you start tracking your code with Git, make sure you have the right tools in place. This tutorial assumes that you’re comfortable working with the command line and have some basic Python knowledge.

Here’s what you’ll need to get started:

A terminal or command prompt
Python 3.10 or higher installed on your system

Note: Git and GitHub are often confused, but they’re not the same thing:

Git is version control software that runs on your computer. It tracks changes to your files and manages your project’s history locally.
GitHub is an online platform for hosting Git repositories. It provides collaboration tools that make sharing code, working with teams, and backing up your projects easier.

You don’t need a GitHub account to use Git or follow this tutorial. Later, if you want to share your code with others or back it up online, you can optionally push your Git repository to platforms like GitHub, GitLab, or Bitbucket.

To learn more about the differences between Git and GitHub, check out Introduction to Git and GitHub for Python Developers.

With these prerequisites in place, you’re ready to begin setting up Git and tracking changes in your project. In the next step, you’ll install Git, prepare your existing Python files, and initialize your first repository.

Step 1: Install Git and Prepare Your Project

To start, you’ll check whether Git is installed on your system, prepare a simple project, and initialize a Git repository so you can begin tracking changes right away.

Check Whether Git Is Already Installed

Before you can start using Git, you need to make sure it’s installed on your machine. Chances are that Git is already present on your system. To check whether Git is installed, run this command:

$ git --version

If this command displays a Git version, you’re good to go and can create a project directory. Otherwise, you need to install Git on your system before continuing.

Install Git on Your System

Luckily, Git provides installers for Windows, macOS, and Linux on its official website, offering a straightforward way to install Git on your machine. Because installation steps vary across operating systems, this guide links to the official documentation rather than reproducing those steps here.

If you prefer a graphical interface, you can install a Git client such as GitHub Desktop, Sourcetree, or GitKraken. These tools install Git automatically during setup.

Once installed, open your terminal and confirm that Git is available:

$ git --version
git version 2.24.0.windows.2

Your Git version may appear slightly different from this example, depending on your operating system and when you installed Git. That’s perfectly fine. As long as Git is installed and the command runs successfully, you’ll be able to follow along with the rest of this tutorial without any issues.

Set Up Your Git Identity

Read the full article at https://realpython.com/how-to-use-git/ »

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Understanding CRUD Operations in SQL

2026-03-24T14:00:00+00:00

CRUD operations are at the heart of nearly every application you interact with. As a developer, you usually want to create data, read or retrieve data, update data, and delete data. Whether you access a database or interact with a REST API, only when all four operations are present are you able to make a complete data roundtrip in your app.

Creating, reading, updating, and deleting are so vital in software development that these methods are widely referred to as CRUD. Understanding CRUD will give you an actionable blueprint when you build applications and help you understand how the applications you use work behind the scenes. So, what exactly does CRUD mean?

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How to Use Note-Taking to Learn Python

2026-03-23T14:00:00+00:00

Learning Python can be genuinely hard, and it’s normal to struggle with fundamental concepts. Research has shown that note-taking is invaluable when learning new things. This guide will help you get the most out of your learning efforts by showing you how to take better notes as you walk through an existing tutorial and keep handwritten notes on the side:

In this guide, you’ll begin by briefly learning about the benefits of note-taking. Then, you’ll follow along with an existing Real Python tutorial as you perform note-taking steps to help make the information in the tutorial really stick. To help you stay organized as you practice, download the Python Note-Taking Worksheet below. It outlines the process you’ll learn here and provides a repeatable framework you can use with future tutorials:

Get Your PDF: Click here to download your free Python Note-Taking Worksheet that outlines that note-taking process.

Take the Quiz: Test your knowledge with our interactive “How to Use Note-Taking to Learn Python” quiz. You’ll receive a score upon completion to help you track your learning progress:

Interactive Quiz

How to Use Note-Taking to Learn Python

Test your understanding of note-taking techniques that help you learn Python more effectively and retain what you study.

What Is Python Note-Taking?

In the context of learning, note-taking is the process of recording information from a source while you’re consuming it. A traditional example is a student jotting down key concepts during a lecture. Another example is typing out lines of code or unfamiliar words while watching a video course, listening to a presentation, or reading a learning resource.

In this guide, Python note-taking refers to taking notes specific to learning Python.

People take notes for a variety of reasons. Usually, the intent is to return to the notes at a later time to remind the note-taker of the information covered during the learning session.

In addition to the value of having a physical set of notes to refer back to, studies have found that the act of taking notes alone improves a student’s ability to recall information on a topic.

This guide focuses on handwritten note-taking—that is, using a writing utensil and paper. Several studies suggest that this form of note-taking is especially effective for understanding a topic and remembering it later. If taking notes by hand isn’t viable for you, don’t worry! The concepts presented here should be applicable to other forms of note-taking as well.

Prerequisites

Since this guide focuses on taking notes while learning Python programming, you’ll start by referencing the Real Python tutorial Python for Loops: The Pythonic Way. This resource is a strong choice because it clearly explains a fundamental programming concept that you’ll use throughout your Python journey.

Once you have the resource open in your browser, set aside a few pieces of paper and have a pen or pencil ready. Alternatively, you can take notes on a tablet with a stylus or another writing tool.

Generally, taking notes by hand has a stronger impact on learning than other methods, such as typing into a text document. For more information on the effectiveness of taking notes by hand versus typing, see this article from the Harvard Graduate School of Education.

Step 1: Write Down Major Concepts

With your note-taking tools ready, start by skimming the learning resource. Usually, you want to look at the major headings to see what topics the material covers. For Real Python content, you can instead just look at the table of contents at the top of the page, since this lists the main sections.

The major headings for your example resource are as follows:

The list above doesn’t include subheadings like “Sequences: Lists, Tuples, Strings, and Ranges” under “Traversing Built-In Collections in Python”. For now, stick to top-level headings.

Read the full article at https://realpython.com/python-note-taking-guide/ »

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The Real Python Podcast – Episode #288: Automate Exploratory Data Analysis & Invent Python Comprehensions

2026-03-20T12:00:00+00:00

How do you quickly get an understanding of what's inside a new set of data? How can you share an exploratory data analysis with your team? Christopher Trudeau is back on the show this week with another batch of PyCoder's Weekly articles and projects.

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Build Your Weekly Python Study Schedule: 7 Days to Consistent Progress

2026-03-18T14:00:00+00:00

Staying consistent with learning Python can be challenging. This guide helps you create a weekly Python study schedule that you can stick to and shows you how it works in practice.

By the end of this guide, you’ll have a practical, personal schedule that fits your life, not the other way around. You’ll walk away with a repeatable 7-day plan and a worksheet you can reuse each week. You’ll know exactly what to study, when to study, and how to maintain momentum, even when life gets busy.

In this guide, you’ll learn how to move from vague intentions to a concrete system using three steps:

Clarify Your Goal: Define exactly what progress looks like for the next seven days.
Design Your Plan: Build a specific 7-day schedule that accounts for real life.
Make It Stick: Use behavioral psychology to turn that schedule into a habit.

By following these steps, you’ll transform your learning process from random bursts of energy into a sustainable routine. Before you dive in, take a moment to make sure you have everything you need to get started.

Prerequisites

This guide is for beginners and early intermediate learners who feel stuck, inconsistent, or overwhelmed by scattered tutorials. You don’t need advanced technical knowledge to benefit from this system.

To get the most out of this process, you’ll need:

Time: A willingness to invest 30 to 45 minutes per day for one week.
Tools: A calendar app (Google Calendar, Outlook, Notion) or a physical notebook.
Ideas: A rough list of Python topics you want to learn or a manageable project idea. If you need inspiration, check out What Can I Do With Python?
Materials: The Weekly Python Study Schedule Worksheet, which is available as a downloadable PDF:

Get Your PDF: Click here to download the free Weekly Python Study Schedule Worksheet you can use to build a consistent study schedule.

Take the Quiz: Test your knowledge with our interactive “Build Your Weekly Python Study Schedule: 7 Days to Consistent Progress” quiz. You’ll receive a score upon completion to help you track your learning progress:

Interactive Quiz

Build Your Weekly Python Study Schedule: 7 Days to Consistent Progress

Build a consistent Python study habit with a repeatable 7-day plan. Learn to set specific goals, schedule your week, and make practice stick.

Once you have these ready, the first step is to clarify exactly what you’re aiming for this week.

Step 1: Define What Progress Means for You This Week

People often fall off their learning goals because those goals are too abstract. Statements like “I want to learn Python” are broad aspirations rather than specific tasks. They describe intentions, but they don’t give you a concrete action to take.

Similarly, “I want to get better at Python” sounds nice, but it doesn’t tell you what to do on Monday at 7 p.m. When you sit down at your computer with a goal that vague, you can spend the first twenty minutes just deciding what to do.

To fix this, you need to shrink your horizon and focus on a smaller timeframe. Instead of trying to plan your entire coding journey at once, focus exclusively on the next seven days. This approach reduces the pressure to know everything right now and lets you focus on immediate, achievable tasks.

Understand Why Specificity Matters

Research on goal setting, specifically the work by Locke and Latham, highlights the relationship between clarity and effort. Their studies show that specific, challenging goals lead to higher performance than easy goals or vague instructions to “do your best.”

Specific goals focus attention, increase effort and persistence, and motivate the development of strategies to accomplish the goal.

— Locke and Latham, A Theory of Goal Setting & Task Performance (Source)

If you define a specific target, your brain switches from “What should I do?” to “How do I do it?” If you can’t describe what progress looks like in seven days, your schedule doesn’t have anything to aim toward.

Abstract goals require motivation to start. Specific goals require only clarity. When you know the target, practice becomes more approachable and sustainable.

You can see the difference in clarity in the table below:

Read the full article at https://realpython.com/weekly-study-schedule/ »

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Downloading Files From URLs With Python

2026-03-17T14:00:00+00:00

Python makes it straightforward to download files from a URL with its robust set of libraries. For quick tasks, you can use the built-in urllib module or the requests library to fetch and save files. When working with large files, streaming data in chunks can help save memory and improve performance.

You can also perform parallel file downloads using ThreadPoolExecutor for multithreading or the aiohttp library for asynchronous tasks. These approaches allow you to handle multiple downloads concurrently, significantly reducing the total download time if you’re handling many files.

By the end of this video course, you’ll understand that:

You can use Python to download files with libraries like urllib and requests.
To download a file using a URL in Python, you can use urlretrieve() or requests.get().
To extract data from a URL in Python, you use the response object from requests.
To download a CSV file from a URL in Python, you may need to specify the format in the URL or query parameters.

In this video course, you’ll be downloading a range of economic data from the World Bank Open Data platform.

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Spyder: Your IDE for Data Science Development in Python

2026-03-16T14:00:00+00:00

There are many different integrated development environments (IDEs) to choose from for Python development. One popular option for data-focused work is Spyder, an open-source Python IDE geared toward scientists, engineers, and data analysts. Its name comes from Scientific PYthon Development EnviRonment.

Out of the box, it has powerful plotting, what-if, and profiling capabilities. It also integrates well with the data science ecosystem, is extensible with first- or third-party plugins, and has a relatively quick learning curve.

How does Spyder stack up against other Python IDEs? It depends on your use case. It’s not as powerful or customizable as VS Code, nor does it pretend to be. It does, however, excel for data science workflows:

Use Case	Pick Spyder	Pick an Alternative
Optimized for data science workflows	✅	—
Dedicated to Python	✅	—
Full-featured	—	VS Code
Supports interactive notebooks	✅ With a plugin	Jupyter, VS Code

If you’re focused on data science in Python, Spyder is a strong fit. For a more full-featured IDE or heavy notebook use, consider Jupyter or VS Code instead.

You can get a handy Spyder IDE cheat sheet at the link below:

Get Your Free Spyder Cheat Sheet: Click here to download the PDF with installation steps, shortcuts, and interface tips.

Take the Quiz: Test your knowledge with our interactive “Spyder: Your IDE for Data Science Development in Python” quiz. You’ll receive a score upon completion to help you track your learning progress:

Interactive Quiz

Spyder: Your IDE for Data Science Development in Python

Test your knowledge of the Spyder IDE for Python data science, including its Variable Explorer, Plots pane, and Profiler.

Start Using the Spyder IDE

You can install Spyder in a few ways: as a standalone program, through a prepackaged distribution, or from the command line. You can also try out Spyder online.

To install Spyder as a standalone application, go to the Spyder download page. When you visit the site, it detects your operating system and offers the appropriate download. Once you download your install file, open it and follow the directions.

You can also install a Python distribution tailored to data science, such as Anaconda or WinPython. Both of these choices include Spyder in their base installations.

You’ll likely want to install dependencies and useful data libraries in addition to Spyder. In this case, first create a Python virtual environment, then use this command:

$ conda create -c conda-forge -n spyder-env spyder numpy scipy pandas matplotlib sympy cython

The install process for pip is similar. To install spyder together with common packages, run:

$ python -m pip install spyder numpy scipy pandas matplotlib sympy cython

For more information on installing Spyder, refer to their install guide.

Out of the box, the Spyder interface consists of three panes:

On the left, you see code in the Editor pane. In the bottom right, you’ll find the IPython Console. Here, you can run code and check past commands using the History tab. The top-right area includes tabs such as Help, Debugger, Files, Find, and Code Analysis. You’ll learn about the Variable Explorer, Plots, and Profiler in the upcoming sections.

Explore Data With the Variable Explorer

Read the full article at https://realpython.com/spyder-ide/ »

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The Real Python Podcast – Episode #287: Crafting and Editing In-Depth Tutorials at Real Python

2026-03-13T12:00:00+00:00

What goes into creating the tutorials you read at Real Python? What are the steps in the editorial process, and who are the people behind the scenes? This week on the show, Real Python team members Martin Breuss, Brenda Weleschuk, and Philipp Acsany join us to discuss topic curation, review stages, and quality assurance.

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Pydantic AI: Build Type-Safe LLM Agents in Python

2026-03-11T14:00:00+00:00

Pydantic AI is a Python framework for building LLM agents that return validated, structured outputs using Pydantic models. Instead of parsing raw strings from LLMs, you get type-safe objects with automatic validation.

If you’ve used FastAPI or Pydantic before, then you’ll recognize the familiar pattern of defining schemas with type hints and letting the framework handle the type validation for you.

By the end of this tutorial, you’ll understand that:

Pydantic AI uses BaseModel classes to define structured outputs that guarantee type safety and automatic validation.
The @agent.tool decorator registers Python functions that LLMs can invoke based on user queries and docstrings.
Dependency injection with deps_type provides type-safe runtime context like database connections without using global state.
Validation retries automatically rerun queries when the LLM returns invalid data, which increases reliability but also API costs.
Google Gemini, OpenAI, and Anthropic models support structured outputs best, while other providers have varying capabilities.

Before you invest time learning Pydantic AI, it helps to understand when it’s the right tool for your project. This decision table highlights common use cases and what to choose in each scenario:

Use Case	Pydantic AI	If not, look into …
You need structured, validated outputs from an LLM	✅	-
You’re building a quick prototype or single-agent app	✅	-
You already use Pydantic or FastAPI	✅	-
You need a large ecosystem of pre-built integrations (vector stores, retrievers, and so on)	-	LangChain or LlamaIndex
You want fine-grained control over prompts with no framework overhead	-	Direct API calls

Pydantic AI emphasizes type safety and minimal boilerplate, making it ideal if you value the FastAPI-style development experience.

Get Your Code: Click here to download the free sample code you’ll use to work with Pydantic AI and build type-safe LLM agents in Python.

Take the Quiz: Test your knowledge with our interactive “Pydantic AI: Build Type-Safe LLM Agents in Python” quiz. You’ll receive a score upon completion to help you track your learning progress:

Interactive Quiz

Pydantic AI: Build Type-Safe LLM Agents in Python

Learn the trade-offs of using Pydantic AI in production, including validation retries, structured outputs, tool usage, and token costs.

Start Using Pydantic AI to Create Agents

Before you dive into building agents with Pydantic AI and Python, you’ll need to install it and set up an API key for your chosen language model provider. For this tutorial, you’ll use Google Gemini, which offers a free tier perfect for experimentation.

Note: Pydantic AI is LLM-agnostic and supports multiple AI providers. Check the Model Providers documentation page for more details on other providers.

You can install Pydantic AI from the Python Package Index (PyPI) using a package manager like pip. Before running the command below, you should create and activate a virtual environment:

(venv) $ python -m pip install pydantic-ai

This command installs all supported model providers, including Google, Anthropic, and OpenAI. From this point on, you just need to set up your favorite provider’s API key to use their models with Pydantic AI. Note that in most cases, you’d need a paid subscription to get a working API key.

Note: You can also power your Pydantic AI apps with local language models. To do this, you can use Ollama with your favorite local models. In this scenario, you won’t need to set up an API key.

If you prefer a minimal installation with only Google Gemini support, you can install the slim package instead:

(venv) $ python -m pip install "pydantic-ai-slim[google]"

You need a personal Google account to use the Gemini free tier. You’ll also need a Google API key to run the examples in this tutorial, so head over to ai.google.dev to get a free API key.

Once you have the API key, set it as an environment variable:

(venv) PS> $ENV:GOOGLE_API_KEY = "your-api-key-here"

(venv) $ export GOOGLE_API_KEY="your-api-key-here"

With the installation complete and your API key configured, you’re ready to create your first agent. The Python professionals on Real Python’s team have technically reviewed and tested all the code examples in this tutorial, so you can work through them knowing they run as shown.

Read the full article at https://realpython.com/pydantic-ai/ »

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Working With APIs in Python: Reading Public Data

2026-03-10T14:00:00+00:00

Python is an excellent choice for working with Application Programming Interfaces (APIs), allowing you to efficiently consume and interact with them. By using the Requests library, you can easily fetch data from APIs that communicate using HTTP, such as REST, SOAP, or GraphQL APIs. This video course covers the essentials of consuming REST APIs with Python, including authentication and handling responses.

By the end of this video course, you’ll understand that:

An API is an interface that allows different systems to communicate, typically through requests and responses.
Python is a versatile language for consuming APIs, offering libraries like Requests to simplify the process.
REST and GraphQL are two common types of APIs, with REST being more widely used for public APIs.
To handle API authentication in Python, you can use API keys or more complex methods like OAuth to access protected resources.

Knowing how to consume an API is one of those magical skills that, once mastered, will crack open a whole new world of possibilities, and consuming APIs using Python is a great way to learn such a skill.

By the end of this video course, you’ll be able to use Python to consume most of the APIs that you come across. If you’re a developer, then knowing how to consume APIs with Python will empower you to integrate data from various online sources into your applications.

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Python Gains frozendict and Other Python News for March 2026

2026-03-09T14:00:00+00:00

After years of community requests, Python is finally getting frozendict. The Steering Council accepted PEP 814 in February, bringing an immutable, hashable dictionary as a built-in type in Python 3.15. It’s one of those additions that feels overdue, and the frozenset-to-set analogy makes it immediately intuitive. This is just one piece of a busy month of Python news.

Beyond that, February brought security patches, AI SDK updates, and some satisfying infrastructure improvements under Python’s hood. Time to dive into the biggest Python news from the past month!

Join Now: Click here to join the Real Python Newsletter and you’ll never miss another Python tutorial, course, or news update.

Python Releases and PEP Highlights

The Steering Council was active in February, with several PEP decisions landing. On the release side, both the 3.14 and 3.13 branches got maintenance updates.

Python 3.15.0 Alpha 6: Comprehension Unpacking and More

Python 3.15.0a6 shipped on February 11, continuing the alpha series toward the May 5 beta freeze. This release includes several accepted PEPs that are now testable:

PEP 798: Unpacking in comprehensions using * and **
PEP 799: A high-frequency, low-overhead statistical sampling profiler
PEP 686: UTF-8 as the default text encoding
PEP 728: TypedDict with typed extra items

PEP 798 is the kind of quality-of-life improvement that makes you smile. It lets you flatten or merge collections directly in a comprehension:

>>> lists = [[1, 2], [3, 4], [5]]
>>> [*it for it in lists]
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

>>> dicts = [{"a": 1}, {"b": 2}]
>>> {**d for d in dicts}
{'a': 1, 'b': 2}

No more writing explicit loops just to concatenate a list of lists.

The JIT compiler continues to show gains: 3-4% on x86-64 Linux over the standard interpreter and 7-8% on AArch64 macOS over the tail-calling interpreter, matching the numbers from alpha 5.

Note: Alpha 7 is scheduled for March 10, 2026, with the beta phase starting May 5. If you maintain packages, now is a great time to test against early builds.

Python 3.14.3 and 3.13.12: Maintenance Releases

On February 3, the team shipped Python 3.14.3 with around 300 bug fixes and Python 3.13.12 with about 240 fixes. No new features here, but if you’re running either version in production, it’s worth grabbing these patches to stay current.

PEP 814 Accepted: `frozendict` Joins the Built-Ins

This one has been on many Python developers’ wishlists for over a decade. PEP 814, authored by Victor Stinner and Donghee Na, adds frozendict as a built-in immutable dictionary type in Python 3.15.

The concept is straightforward. Just as frozenset gives you an immutable version of set, frozendict gives you an immutable version of dict:

>>> config = frozendict(host="localhost", port=8080)
>>> config["host"]
'localhost'

>>> config["host"] = "0.0.0.0"
Traceback (most recent call last):
    ...
TypeError: 'frozendict' object does not support item assignment

Read the full article at https://realpython.com/python-news-march-2026/ »

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What Does Python's init.py Do?

2026-03-03T14:00:00+00:00

Python’s special __init__.py file marks a directory as a regular Python package and allows you to import its modules. This file runs automatically the first time you import its containing package. You can use it to initialize package-level variables, define functions or classes, and structure the package’s namespace clearly for users.

By the end of this video course, you’ll understand that:

A directory without an __init__.py file becomes a namespace package, which behaves differently from a regular package and may cause slower imports.
You can use __init__.py to explicitly define a package’s public API by importing specific modules or functions into the package namespace.
The Python convention of using leading underscores helps indicate to users which objects are intended as non-public, although this convention can still be bypassed.
Code inside __init__.py runs only once during the first import, even if you run the import statement multiple times.

Understanding how to effectively use __init__.py helps you structure your Python packages in a clear, maintainable way, improving usability and namespace management.

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The Real Python Podcast – Episode #286: Overcoming Testing Obstacles With Python's Mock Object Library

2026-02-27T12:00:00+00:00

Do you have complex logic and unpredictable dependencies that make it hard to write reliable tests? How can you use Python's mock object library to improve your tests? Christopher Trudeau is back on the show this week with another batch of PyCoder's Weekly articles and projects.

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Start Building With FastAPI

2026-02-24T14:00:00+00:00

FastAPI is a web framework for building APIs with Python. It leverages standard Python type hints to provide automatic validation, serialization, and interactive documentation. When you’re deciding between Python web frameworks, FastAPI stands out for its speed, developer experience, and built-in features that reduce boilerplate code for API development:

Use Case	Pick FastAPI	Pick Flask or Django
You want to build an API-driven web app	✅	—
You need a full-stack web framework	—	✅
You value automatic API documentation	✅	—

Whether you’re building a minimal REST API or a complex backend service, understanding core features of FastAPI will help you make an informed decision about adopting it for your projects. To get the most from this video course, you’ll benefit from having basic knowledge of Python functions, HTTP concepts, and JSON handling.

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The Real Python Podcast – Episode #285: Exploring MCP Apps & Adding Interactive UIs to Clients

2026-02-20T12:00:00+00:00

How can you move your MCP tools beyond plain text? How do you add interactive UI components directly inside chat conversations? This week on the show, Den Delimarsky from Anthropic joins us to discuss MCP Apps and interactive UIs in MCP.

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Write Python Docstrings Effectively

2026-02-17T14:00:00+00:00

Writing clear, consistent docstrings in Python helps others understand your code’s purpose, parameters, and outputs. In this video course, you’ll learn about best practices, standard formats, and common pitfalls to avoid, ensuring your documentation is accessible to users and tools alike.

By the end of this video course, you’ll understand that:

Docstrings are strings used to document your Python code and can be accessed at runtime.
Python comments and docstrings have important differences.
One-line and multiline docstrings are classifications of docstrings.
Common docstring formats include reStructuredText, Google-style, NumPy-style, and doctest-style.
Antipatterns such as inconsistent formatting should be avoided when writing docstrings.

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The Real Python Podcast – Episode #284: Running Local LLMs With Ollama and Connecting With Python

2026-02-13T12:00:00+00:00

Would you like to learn how to work with LLMs locally on your own computer? How do you integrate your Python projects with a local model? Christopher Trudeau is back on the show this week with another batch of PyCoder's Weekly articles and projects.

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Improving Your Tests With the Python Mock Object Library

2026-02-10T14:00:00+00:00

When you’re writing robust code, tests are essential for verifying that your application logic is correct, reliable, and efficient. However, the value of your tests depends on how well they demonstrate these qualities. Obstacles such as complex logic and unpredictable dependencies can make writing valuable tests challenging. The Python mock object library, unittest.mock, can help you overcome these obstacles.

By the end of this course, you’ll be able to:

Create Python mock objects using Mock
Assert that you’re using objects as you intended
Inspect usage data stored on your Python mocks
Configure certain aspects of your Python mock objects
Substitute your mocks for real objects using patch()
Avoid common problems inherent in Python mocking

You’ll begin by learning what mocking is and how it will improve your tests!

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The Real Python Podcast – Episode #283: Improving Your GitHub Developer Experience

2026-02-06T12:00:00+00:00

What are ways to improve how you're using GitHub? How can you collaborate more effectively and improve your technical writing? This week on the show, Adam Johnson is back to talk about his new book, "Boost Your GitHub DX: Tame the Octocat and Elevate Your Productivity".

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Getting Started With Google Gemini CLI

2026-02-03T14:00:00+00:00

This video course will teach you how to use Gemini CLI to bring Google’s AI-powered coding assistance directly into your terminal. After you authenticate with your Google account, this tool will be ready to help you analyze code, identify bugs, and suggest fixes—all without leaving your familiar development environment.

Imagine debugging code without switching between your console and browser, or picture getting instant explanations for unfamiliar projects. Like other command-line AI assistants, Google’s Gemini CLI brings AI-powered coding assistance directly into your command line, allowing you to stay focused in your development workflow.

Whether you’re troubleshooting a stubborn bug, understanding legacy code, or generating documentation, this tool acts as an intelligent pair-programming partner that understands your codebase’s context.

You’re about to install Gemini CLI, authenticate with Google’s free tier, and put it to work on an actual Python project. You’ll discover how natural language queries can help you understand code faster and catch bugs that might slip past manual review.

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The Real Python Podcast – Episode #282: Testing Python Code for Scalability & What's New in pandas 3.0

2026-01-30T12:00:00+00:00

How do you create automated tests to check your code for degraded performance as data sizes increase? What are the new features in pandas 3.0? Christopher Trudeau is back on the show this week with another batch of PyCoder's Weekly articles and projects.

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The Real Python Podcast – Episode #281: Continuing to Improve the Learning Experience at Real Python

2026-01-23T12:00:00+00:00

If you haven't visited the Real Python website lately, then it's time to check out a great batch of updates on realpython.com! Dan Bader returns to the show this week to discuss improvements to the site and more ways to learn Python.

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